Abstract
In this paper, we present data portraying the situation of Black women in the Brazilian labor market and present information about the situation of domestic workers in Brazil: a profession that is mostly carried out by Black women. Furthermore, we present the project proposal “Black Women and the Labor Market: A Study on Domestic Workers in Brazil” developed at the Afro Center of the Brazilian Center of Analysis and Planning (CEBRAP) with support from the University of Pennsylvania.
The Situation of Black Women in the Brazilian Labor Market
According to data from the 2023 Brazil National Household Sample Survey (PNAD Contínua), women comprise 53% of the workforce in Brazil. While the survey classified 47% of the total female population as unemployed or “discouraged”1, it is important to note that many women in this group are engaged in domestic care work (e.g. housekeeping, childcare, and tending to the elderly, etc.), which requires at least 17 hours and 48 minutes of labor per week2. This means that most Brazilian women are working in some capacity, whether in formal sectors of the labor market or not.
Gaps in the data from the *PNAD Contínua *survey—particularly the exclusion of care work from its definition of labor activities—make it difficult to properly analyze the women’s labor market in a broader way. Nevertheless, the data still point to unequal working conditions between Black and non-Black women. According to the research, Black and mixed-raced women make up the largest group of informal workers, accounting for 41.9% of those without any type of formal employment relationship or service provision contract.
This situation limits Black workers’ access to social protections, such as social security. According to the same research carried out by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), Black women contribute the least to social security (41%)3 as a result of their limited access to labor protections, which results in lower wages. These data are even more shocking when considering that more than half of women employed in the labor market are Black (52%). Despite making up the majority of the country’s female workforce, Black and mixed-raced women still face limited access to the labor rights prescribed in the Consolidation of Labor Laws (CLT). They are also the labor market’s lowest earners, with an average monthly income of R$ 2,562.004.
Even in roles that require higher education, Black women still face wage disparities. While non-Black women earn approximately R$4,071.00 and non-Black men earn R$7,283.00, Black women earn R$3,721.00, and Black men receive R$5,303.00 monthly. Despite overcoming educational barriers and managing to enter the labor market in more qualified positions, Black women with university degrees continue to face precarious labor conditions in Brazil.
These data show that in professions that require both more and fewer qualifications, Black workers remain the most precarious group in the labor market. This reality is particularly evident in the demographic distribution of various professions, including domestic work, which is one of the most common occupations for Black women in contemporary Brazil. According to the IBGE, 67.3% of female domestic workers in Brazil are Black, and fewer than 25% of them are able to access labor rights or social protections through their employment5.
The exclusion and precarious conditions faced by Black workers, along with their overrepresentation in domestic work, stem from a complex history shaped by the legacies of slavery and the social hierarchies established after its abolition, which relegated the Black population—especially Black women—to an incomplete form of citizenship. These are the issues that we aim to analyze in the project “Black Women and the Labor Market: A Study on Domestic Workers in Brazil”, developed at the Afro Center of the Brazilian Center of Analysis and Planning (CEBRAP) in partnership with the University of Pennsylvania.
Between Fighting and Exploitation: The Situation of Domestic Work and Worers in Brazil
The experiences and agency of domestic workers in Brazilian society have been a subject of reflection by Black intellectuals since at least the 1970s6. Scholars like Lélia Gonzalez have critically examined the ways in which Black women have been “naturalized” into the role of domestic workers, as well as the triple-layered discrimination they face—along the lines of race, gender, and class—that diminishes their social status. Gonzalez also argues that the representation and meaning that Brazilian society attributed to domestic work through the creation of figures such as the “Mãe Preta” (Black Mother)—a representation of the wet nurses of the white slaveholding master classes—helped popularize the myth of racial democracy, which falsely assumes harmony among Brazil’s ethnic-racial groups and denies the existence of racial discrimination7. Like other scholars of her time, Lélia Gonzalez viewed the association between Black women and domestic work as a social and historical issue rooted in the hierarchies that structure Brazilian society.
In this way, Black activists and women’s movements have challenged interpretations of domestic work that attempt to downplay the significance of gender, race, and class inequalities8. In addition to a history marked by the legacy of slavery and the exclusion from labor rights, domestic workers in Brazil have faced long-standing struggles for full citizenship. These struggles were fundamental in expanding the agendas of both the Brazilian Black Movement and women’s movements, which now treat care work as a central issue in their fight against systemic oppression9.
In this context, the project “Black Women and the Labor Market: A Study on Domestic Workers in Brazil” aims to analyze domestic work relations in Brazil from a long-term perspective10. By drawing on historiographical and sociological literature, the project examines the factors that contributed to the devaluation of domestic work and the deterioration of the working conditions for women in this sector. To facilitate this analysis, we created a comprehensive database using historical records from the second half of the 19th century that compiles information extracted from the employment contracts and registration books of domestic workers employed in the city of São Paulo in 1886. Additionally, the database highlights key milestones in labor legislation following the abolition of slavery, as well as the political actions taken by domestic workers throughout the 20th century.
In 1886, most of Brazil’s Black population was already free or liberated, and the workers featured in our data were part of the free labor market11. However, as slavery was not formally abolished in Brazil until 1888, these records also reflect a labor system in transition, providing valuable insights into the dynamics of domestic work during this period. Through the database, we provide information on workers such as race, skin color, social status, salary, date of hire, reason for dismissal, and other key details. Making this material publicly available represents an important step towards expanding research on Brazil’s Black population, especially given the difficulty and expense of accessing historical records from the late 19th century that include information on race and occupation12.
The collapse of slavery and the subsequent shifts in labor relations in Brazil reshaped social hierarchies, leading to new notions of race and gender in Brazilian society. This process also triggered changes in understandings about the social role of women and, as a result, Black women began to be seen as individuals who were outside the norm of what could be socially respectable, due to prejudices regarding not only their cultural practices but also their physical characteristics. This scenario intensified even further with the abolition of slavery and the proclamation of the Republic, a period in which we saw a reduction in work opportunities for Black women, contributing to their overrepresentation in the domestic labor market.
Between 1888 and 1943, the Brazilian government’s main objective was to reorganize labor relations that could no longer rely on slavery. This is the context that produced Brazilian labor legislation enacted in 1943 and also removed the status of workers from domestic workers, as activities related to care were not valued in the same way as occupations that were directly related to productive work. In this way, the creation of labor laws represented a major milestone in the diminishing of the citizenship of domestic workers. However, this event also inaugurated a period of fighting and strengthening of the political organization of these women, who only won the rights that were already part of the reality of other workers 70 years after the creation of the CLT.
We believe that domestic work provides a critical lens through which to analyze gender and racial inequalities in Brazil, which is why we are committed to highlighting and expanding upon the discussions already taking place on this issue.
References:
Bairros, Luiza. “Nossos feminismos revisitados.” Revista Estudos Feministas 3, no. 2 (1995): 458–463.
Braudel, Fernand. “História e ciências sociais: a longa duração.” Revista de História 30, no. 62 (1965): 261–294.
Chalhoub, Sidney, and Fernando Teixeira. “Sujeitos no imaginário acadêmico: Escravos e trabalhadores na historiografia brasileira desde os anos 1980.” Cadernos AEL 14, no. 26 (2009): 11–50.
Departamento Sindical de Estatística e Estudos Socioeconômicos (DIEESE). Mulheres: inserção no mercado de trabalho. São Paulo: DIEESE, 2024.
——. Trabalho doméstico. São Paulo: DIEESE, 2024. Gonzalez, Lélia. “A mulher negra na sociedade brasileira: Uma análise política e econômica.” In Por um feminismo afrolatinoamericano: ensaios, intervenções e diálogos, 49–64. São Paulo: Zahar, 2020.
Nascimento, Álvaro Pereira. “Trabalhadores negros e o ‘paradigma da ausência’: contribuições à história social do trabalho no Brasil.” Estudos Históricos 29, no. 59 (2016): 607–626.
Negro, Antonio Luigi, and Flávio Gomes. “Além de senzalas e fábricas: Uma história social do trabalho.” Tempo Social 18 (2006): 217–240.
Santos, Taina Silva. “Histórias de mulheres negras no mercado de trabalho: Caminhos trilhados e trajetos que ainda podem ser percorridos.” In Escravidão e liberdade: Estudos sobre gênero & corpo, memória & trabalho, edited by Lúcia Helena Oliveira Silva, Jaime Rodrigues, and Airton Felix Silva Souza, 217–238. São Paulo: FFLCH, 2023.
——. “Em defesa da imagem, da autoestima e da dignidade de mulheres e meninas negras: Mercado de trabalho em pauta no acervo de Geledés.” Cadernos Afro Memória 2 (2023): 31–37.
Women who would like to find work but have given up due to the severe unemployment situation and other factors. ↩︎
Departamento Sindical de Estatística e Estudos Socioeconômicos (DIEESE), Mulheres: inserção no mercado de trabalho (São Paulo: DIEESE, 2024). ↩︎
DIEESE, Mulheres: inserção no mercado de trabalho. ↩︎
DIEESE, Mulheres: inserção no mercado de trabalho. ↩︎
Departamento Sindical de Estatística e Estudos Socioeconômicos (DIEESE), Trabalho doméstico (São Paulo: DIEESE, 2024). ↩︎
Taina Silva Santos, “Histórias de mulheres negras no mercado de trabalho: caminhos trilhados e trajetos que ainda podem ser percorridos,” in Escravidão e liberdade: estudos sobre gênero & corpo, memória & trabalho, História Diversa, vol. 30, eds. Lúcia Helena Oliveira Silva, Jaime Rodrigues, and Airton Felix Silva Souza (São Paulo: FFLCH, 2023), 217–238. ↩︎
Lélia Gonzalez, “A mulher negra na sociedade brasileira: uma análise política e econômica,” in Por um feminismo afrolatinoamericano: ensaios, intervenções e diálogos (São Paulo: Zahar, 2020), 49–64. ↩︎
Taina Silva Santos, “Em defesa da imagem, da autoestima e da dignidade de mulheres e meninas negras: mercado de trabalho em pauta no acervo de Geledés,” Cadernos Afro Memória 2, no. 1 (2023): 31–37. ↩︎
Luiza Bairros, “Nossos feminismos revisitados,” Revista Estudos Feministas 3, no. 2 (1995): 458–463. ↩︎
Concept developed by historian Fernand Braudel. To learn more, see Fernand Braudel, “História e ciências sociais: a longa duração,” Revista de História 30, no. 62 (1965): 261–294. ↩︎
Álvaro Pereira Nascimento, “Trabalhadores negros e o ‘paradigma da ausência’: contribuições à história social do trabalho no Brasil,” Estudos Históricos 29, no. 59 (2016): 607–626. See also Antonio Luigi Negro and Flávio Gomes, “Além de senzalas e fábricas: Uma história social do trabalho,” Tempo Social 18 (2006): 217–240; Sidney Chalhoub and Fernando Teixeira, “Sujeitos no imaginário acadêmico: escravos e trabalhadores na historiografia brasileira desde os anos 1980,” Cadernos AEL 14, no. 26 (2009): 11–50. ↩︎
Silva Santos, Histórias de mulheres negras, 219. ↩︎